Oborová literatura

Nastal čas podívat se na literaturu, kterou pravidelně studujete ke zkouškám. Překvapivě (nebo nepřekvapivě?) nejtěžší bývá právě překládání textu, který dokonale známe v originále.

1. Přečtěte si nejprve celou ukázku. Soustřeďte se zejména na rozlišení čtyř uvedených stylů učení.
2. Pokuste se na webu objevit články či prezentace na stejné téma. Pečlivě kontrolujte jejich původ! Studentská amatérská verze není dobrý zdroj.
3. Pořiďte si slovníček použitých termínů. Užitečným zdrojem vám bude Průchův Česko-anglický pedagogický slovník.


THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE LANGUAGE LEARNER
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
Zoltán Dörnyei

KOLB’S MODEL OF LEARNING STYLES
Having reviewed briefly a ‘pure’ cognitive style system, let us now return to
the broader issue of learning styles. There are a number of competing models
in the literature, but the theory proposed by Kolb (1984; Kolb et al.,
2001) as part of his broader experiential learning theory is one that has been
widely endorsed by both researchers and practitioners. Furthermore, as is the
case with Riding’s construct, Kolb’s theory is also accompanied by an established
measuring instrument, the ‘Learning Style Inventory’ (see later).
Kolb’s learning style construct is based on the permutation of two main
dimensions, concrete vs. abstract thinking and active vs. reflective information
processing. An orientation toward concrete thinking focuses on being
involved in experiences and dealing with immediate human situations in a
personal way, emphasizing feeling as opposed to thinking. An orientation
toward abstract conceptualization focuses on using logic, ideas, and concepts,
emphasizing thinking as opposed to feeling. An orientation toward
active experimentation focuses on actively influencing people and changing
situations; it emphasizes practical applications as opposed to reflective understanding.
An orientation toward reflective observation focuses on understanding
the meaning of ideas and situations by carefully observing and impartially
describing them; it emphasizes understanding as opposed to practical application. Based on the combination of the two style continuums, four
basic learner types, or learning style patterns, emerge:

• Divergers (concrete & reflective) have received their label because they
prefer concrete situations that call for the generation of ideas, such as a
brainstorming session. This does not mean they are abstract thinkers;
just the opposite, they are down-to-earth people who learn best through
concrete experience and like to look at concrete situations from many
points of view in a reflective manner. They are also interested in other
people and are fairly emotional in their dealings with them. They have
broad cultural interests and often specialize in the arts. In classroom
situations they prefer to work in groups.

• Convergers (abstract & active) are abstract thinkers who generate ideas
and theories. They are, however, not detached from reality as they are
interested in active experimentation to find practical uses for their
schemes. They are good at solving specific problems, especially if the
tasks are technical rather than interpersonal or social in nature. In formal
learning situations, people with this style prefer experiments and simulations,
laboratory assignments, and practical applications.

• Assimilators (abstract & reflective) are also abstract thinkers but their
strength is not in dreaming up ideas and then actively trying to put them
into test, like that of the convergers, but rather, as the name suggests, assimilating
disparate observations in a reflective manner, that is, understanding
a wide range of information and putting it into a concise and
logical form. People with this style embody best the stereotype of the
‘aloof academic,’ as they are less interested in people than in abstract
concepts and find it more important that a theory has logical soundness
than practical value.

• Accommodators (concrete & active) are the most hands-on learners:
They like concrete experience and active experimentation, and they are
stimulated by challenging experiences even to the extent of taking risks.
They often follow their ‘gut’ feelings rather than logical analysis. No
wonder that this learning style is effective in action-oriented careers
such as marketing or sales. In formal learning situations they like to
work with others on active projects and enjoy field work.

http://wiki.knihovna.cz/index.php?title=Kolb%C5%AFv_cyklus

Dobývání vesmíru

Exponenciální nárůst poznatků o historii, stavu a vývoji vesmíru přináší také řadu příležitostí setkat se s tímto tématem v různých překladech, od sci-fi přes populárně naučné články až po vysoce odbornou literaturu. Dnes zůstaneme na úrovni populárně naučné, jak ji prezentuje v krátkých sděleních na svých webových stránkách NASA.

1. Přečtěte si celý článek a vypište si odborné termíny. Vyhledejte neznámá slova.

2. Pokuste se každý odstavec stručně shrnout vlastními slovy, tak aby vznikl stručný, ale konsistentní text.
Tak vznikají například krátká sdělení v odborném či populárně naučném tisku, určená širší veřejnosti - jde nám o rychlé shrnutí nejdůležitějších informací a novinek.
Výsledek vložte do komentáře k tomuto blogu. (do 30.11.)

3. Přeložte celý článek (do 7.12.)

_______________________________________________
https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/finding-new-worlds-with-a-play-of-light-and-shadow

Finding New Worlds with a Play of Light and Shadow
Astronomers have used many different methods to discover planets beyond the solar system, but the most successful by far is transit photometry, which measures changes in a star's brightness caused by a mini-eclipse. When a planet crosses in front of its star along our line of sight, it blocks some of the star's light. If the dimming lasts for a set amount of time and occurs at regular intervals, it likely means an exoplanet is passing in front of, or transiting, the star once every orbital period.

NASA Goddard astrophysicist Daniel Angerhausen discusses how astronomers may be able to maximize transit photometry to find planets like those in our solar system around other stars -- and possibly moons, rings, and asteroid groups as well.
Credits: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center
Download the video in HD at NASA's Scientific Visualization Studio
NASA’s Kepler Space Telescope has used this technique to become the most successful planet-hunting spacecraft to date, with more than a thousand established discoveries and many more awaiting confirmation. Missions carrying improved technology are now planned, but how much more can they tell us about alien planetary systems similar to our own?

A great deal, according to recently published studies by Michael Hippke at the Institute for Data Analysis in Neukirchen-Vluyn, Germany, and Daniel Angerhausen, a postdoctoral researcher at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. They show that in the best-case scenarios upcoming missions could uncover planetary moons, ringed worlds similar to Saturn, and even large collections of asteroids.

"We expect a flood of discoveries from these new missions, so we want to get a feel for the possibilities so scientists can make the most of the data," Angerhausen said.

Both NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) are building on Kepler's success. NASA's Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), scheduled to launch no later than 2018, will be the first-ever spaceborne all-sky transit survey. Over the course of two years, TESS will monitor some 200,000 nearby stars for telltale transits. ESA's Planetary Transits and Oscillations of stars (PLATO) satellite, which is expected to begin a six-year mission in 2024, will search for planets around roughly a million stars spread over half the sky.

The amount of stellar dimming caused by a transiting planet tells astronomers how big the planet is in proportion to its star, while recurring events can tell us how long it takes for the object to orbit its star. Additional transits increase confidence the dimming isn't caused by another cosmic object (such as a faint star), dark sunspot-like regions on the host star, or noise in the detector. Over the operational lifetime of a satellite, the strongest signals always come from larger planets orbiting close to their stars because they produce both a deeper dimming and more frequent transits.

"Planets with sizes and orbits similar to Mars or Mercury will remain out of reach, even when six years of PLATO data are combined," said Hippke. "But worlds similar to Venus and Earth will show up readily." Kepler has demonstrated the presence of planets smaller than Earth in very close orbits around stars smaller than the sun, but these sweltering worlds are unlikely to support life. TESS and PLATO will reveal Earth-sized worlds in Earth-like orbits around stars similar to the sun. Orbiting within the star’s habitable zone, these planets may possess pools of liquid water, thought to be a prerequisite for the development of life as we know it.

Jupiter and Saturn each take more than a decade to orbit the sun. Similar worlds may only transit once during the TESS and PLATO missions but will produce a strong event. If, like Jupiter, the planet has a few large moons, their transits could show up in the data too. "We wouldn't have a clear detection, and we wouldn't be able to say whether the planet had a single large moon or a set of small ones, but the observation would provide a strong moon candidate for follow-up by other future facilities," explained Angerhausen.

Today, rings have been detected around only one exoplanet, called J1407b. The ring system is more than 200 times larger than Saturn's. Considering how a more Saturn-like planet would appear to PLATO, the researchers show that the transiting ring system produces a clear signal that precedes and follows the planet's passage across its star. These findings were published in the Sept. 1 issue of The Astrophysical Journal.

In a second study, published in the Sept. 20 issue of the same journal, the researchers explored the possibility of detecting asteroids trapped in stable orbital zones called Lagrange points, locations where a planet's gravitational pull balances its sun's. These areas lead and follow the planet in its orbit by about 60 degrees. In our solar system, the most prominent example occurs near Jupiter, where at least 6,000 known objects have gathered in two groups collectively called the Trojan asteroids. Less well known is that Earth, Mars, Uranus and Neptune similarly have captured one or more asteroids along their orbits, and astronomers now refer to all objects trapped in this way as Trojan bodies.  

The same phenomenon will occur in other planetary systems, so Hippke and Angerhausen combined Kepler observations of more than 1,000 planet-hosting stars to hunt for an average dip in starlight that would indicate transits by Trojan bodies. They turned up a subtle signal corresponding to the expected locations of objects trapped in two Lagrange points.

"As good as the Kepler data are, we're really pushing them to the limit, so this is a very preliminary result," Hippke said. "We've shown somewhat cautiously that it's possible to detect Trojan asteroids, but we'll have to wait for better data from TESS, PLATO and other missions to really nail that down."

Francis Reddy
NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md.

Last Updated: Oct. 30, 2015
Editor: Ashley Morrow

Pracovní postup

Zní to jako nadpis z učebnice českého jazyka a slohu?
Pracovní postupy a návody tvoří značnou část materiálů z oblasti odborného překladu. Nejprve se podíváme na text doslova unikátní, který by neměl skýtat ani lexikální, ani syntakticko-stylistické pasti. Pomůže nám ovšem osvojit si užitečné překladatelské triky, zejména postup vizualizace.

REF: http://www.biblio.com/book/mending-stitch-stitch-anne-i-g/d/157928888


Nejprve si následující text přečtěte. Dokážete si postup představit, nakreslit?

Teď si z capsy stáhněte kompletní materiál a znovu se textem zabývejte, dokud nebudete schopni postup přesně vysvětlit česky. Teprve pak se pusťte do překládání :)


MENDING Stitch by Stitch
by Anne I. G. Begg

Material used for patching or darning should be as near the original as possible in colour and texture. A mend should cover both hole and thin place surrounding it.

Rules for Darning
When darning stockinette garments, leave loops of thread to allow for shrinkage and to allow for stretch in stockinette.
Do not let rows of darning finish on same line of weave as this weakens it, but let darns be uneven in outline.
Darn the way of the weave, first, and then cross the darn, keeping lines of darning parallel to weave.
Darn on wrong side of material.

Rules for Patching
Patches are generally square or rectangular in shape, but only because it is thus easier to turn in edges. Where no turnings are required, e.g. kid glove, patch can be round.
Threads and pattern of patch must follow those of garment.
Patches must not be placed over hems or seams; these must first be unpicked, patch put on and new hem or seam stitched on to patch.
When stitching a patch on always start in the middle of a side - never at a corner.

Darning
Darning is used to repair thin places and small holes in garments. Large holes are repaired more invisibly by patching—except for woven materials, e.g. stockings, vests, etc., which are generally darned.
All darning is done on the wrong side of material.

Shapes of Darns
These should not be such that darn finishes on same line of loops. Therefore round, diamond, wave, octagonal, are all suitable shapes.

To Darn Hole in Stocking
Decide shape of darn. Start by leaving short end of wool and leave loops at end of each line of darning. When hole is reached, needle must go through loops left round hole. Keep stitches evenly in and out of stocking. To cross-darn work over hole only, weave over and under strands of wool covering hole.

Hedge Tear Darn
The hedge tear generally occurs on outer garments, as it is caused by material being caught on a nail or hook. There is thus no thin place round it. With the exception of a tears on silk or cotton this is always darned and on woollens can be made quite invisible. Mend on the wrong side of material. To prevent edges slipping, pin square of stiff paper behind tear. Draw edges together with fishbone stitch.

To Darn
On woollens either silk thread or thread frayed from similar material is used for mending.
Start darning above end of tear, following direction of threads. When near corner leave needle threaded. With new thread darn other side in same way. Using two needles alternately, double-darn the corner of tear. This prevents frayed point getting pulled into a hole.

Cross-Cut Darn
This is used generally on table linen either to darn a thin place or a cut. It is darned on the wrong side of unstarched material, using a linen floss or flax thread to darn with.

To Mark Shape of Darn
Put ruler along hole and mark points AB so much beyond each end of hole. Following thread up and down through A, mark so much above and below. Mark same through B. This makes rectangle DCEF and is shape for darning.

To Cross-darn
From A measure so much to right and left of A along thread going across. Mark same at B. This gives other rectangle for darning across.
When finished starch and iron linen. Darning sinks into material and is almost invisible on right side.

Eminent Europeans

Sbírka esejů na téma procesu vzniku Evropské unie přináší v oblasti odborného a populárně naučného překladu řadu zajímavostí a překladatelských úskalí. Seznamte se nejprve se základními charakteristikami knihy, nahlédněte do dostuných materiálů, poté si zvolte k překladu jednu ze tří prvních níže reprodukovaných stran a pusťte se do práce. 

Noticably missing from the ranks of the Action Committee were the leadres of business organisations.


https://tritius.kmo.cz/Katalog/detail/5281170

Zázraky přírody

1. Opravy svých textů najdete na capse.

2. Přečtěte si následující článek a zhodnoťte jeho jazykovou úroveň.
http://www.national-geographic.cz/clanky/jak-se-stat-neviditelnym-zvirata-umi-menit-barvu-predstirat-nekoho-jineho-ale-staci-i-dobre-geny.html#.VhJSO-ztlHw

3. http://www.janegoodall.org.au/similaities-to-people/

Similarities to People
Chimpanzees and humans differ by only 1.7% of DNA!
Consequently, we have striking similarities in the blood composition and immune responses. In fact, biologically, chimpanzees are more closely related to humans than they are to gorillas! Some scientists have even proposed including chimpanzees in the same genus as human beings to recognize these similarities, calling them Homo troglodytes.

Intelligence
The anatomy of the chimpanzee brain and central nervous system is startlingly similar to our own. Thus it should not surprise us that the chimpanzee (along with gorilla and bonobo) is capable of intellectual performances once thought unique to humans! In the wild, chimps must constantly make decisions, such as which group they should join or whether to be peaceful or aggressive. Moreover, they are capable of sophisticated cooperation in hunting. They use more tools for more purposes than any other creatures except ourselves.

Communication
In captivity chimpanzees can be taught human languages such as American Sign Language (ASL), learning 300 or more signs and can master many complex skills on the computer. It has been demonstrated that chimpanzees are capable of reasoned thought, abstraction, generalization, symbolic representation and have a concept of self. Although it is difficult to quantify emotions, those who have worked closely with chimpanzees agree that they feel and express emotions such as sadness and happiness, fear and despair - and they know mental as well as physical pain. There are uncanny similarities in the nonverbal communication patterns of chimps and humans - kissing, embracing, patting on the back, touching hands, tickling, swaggering, shaking the first, brandishing sticks, hurling rocks.

Childhood
Chimps, like people, have a long childhood - five years of suckling and sleeping in their mothers' nests at night. After the birth of a new baby, an older child remains emotionally dependent on its mother and continues to travel with her for the next three to four years. Bonds formed between mother and offspring and between siblings during this intense association period are likely to persist throughout life. This long childhood is as important for the chimp as for the human child. Due to the chimp's fascination with the behavior of others and ability to imitate and practice observed actions, behavioural patterns are passed down from one generation to the next.
When a mother dies her orphaned offspring may be unable to survive. The orphan shows signs of clinical depression, and feeding and play activities decline. Older siblings, including males, often adopt their orphaned brothers or sisters. Occasionally individuals adopt infants not related to them - suggesting altruistic behavior.

Biological Make-up
The biological composition of chimpanzees is so similar to our own that they can catch or be infected with all known human infectious diseases (with the possible exception of cholera). This is why they are used in medical research. Increasingly, researchers are finding that the similarities in behavior, intellectual performance and emotions are equally as striking. This will hopefully lead to improved medical research lab conditions. Ultimately, we hope it will no longer be considered ethical to use them at all.

Significant Differences
Jane Goodall's study of chimpanzees not only points to striking similarities between humans and chimpanzees but to the differences. Perhaps the most significant of these is the fact that chimpanzees have not developed spoken language. Humans can teach their infants about things or events not present, share knowledge of the distant past, make plans for the distant future, discuss an idea so that it grows as a result of the accumulated wisdom of the group. The fact that chimpanzees can learn from humans, to communicate using human languages such as ASL or computers does not minimize this difference. It is our language that has enabled our species to become so dependent on culturally transmitted behavior. Our intellect dwarfs that of even the most gifted chimpanzee. There are, of course, very many physical differences as well. One is in the structure of the vocal tract, as mentioned. Chimpanzees have not developed the upright posture of humans. The anatomy of our hands and feet is also very different.

So Like Us
The structure of the chimpanzee brain is startlingly similar to that of the human."
--Jane Goodall
Many aspects of chimpanzee behavior and social relations, emotional expression and needs, and intellectual abilities are similar to humans. There are, in particular, close parallels between the chimpanzee infant and the human child. Both have the capacity for endless romping and play, are highly curious, learn by observation and imitation, and above all, need constant reassurance and attention. Most importantly, affectionate physical contact is essential for healthy development.
Various mental traits once regarded as unique to humans have now been demonstrated in chimpanzees; reasoned thought, abstraction, generalization, symbolic representation, and a concept of self. Non-verbal communication includes hugs, kisses, pats on the back, and tickling. Many of their emotions, such as joy and sadness, fear and despair, are similar to or the same as our own. The longer-term studies of chimpanzee behavior in the field (at Gombe and Mahale Mountains national parks in Tanzania, Budongo Forest and Kabale Forest in Uganda, Tai Forest in Cote d'Ivoire and forests in Guinea) have taught us not only a great deal about the chimpanzee's place in nature, but of our own.
Once we admit that we are not the only beings with personality, reasoned thought, and above all, the ability to feel and express emotions such as joy, despair and empathy, then we develop a new respect for chimpanzees. The line between human and other non-human beings, once thought so sharp, becomes blurred. This allows us to appreciate and respect all the other amazing animal beings with whom we share the planet.

Blurring the Line
From her very first days at Gombe through to the present time, Jane Goodall refers to the chimpanzees not by numbers but by name. Her first manuscript presented for publication in a scientific journal was returned with editorial comments which contested this methodology. Wherever Jane had written "he," "she" or "who" in reference to a chimpanzee it had been replaced with "it" or "which". Jane was furious, and crossed out every "it" and "which." That was Jane's first battle with conventional science - and she won.
Jane also shocked ethologists (scientists who study animal behavior) by describing the chimpanzees' personalities, by talking about their ability to reason and most controversial by describing their emotions. All of this was considered anthropomorphic and unacceptable. Jane's study emphasized the importance of individuality and the unique contribution of each individual to the pack. The study has also served to blur the line, once thought so sharp, between humans and the rest of the animal kingdom.
This study, now supported by many others provides compelling evidence for personality differences, rational thought and problem solving abilities, mental powers of abstraction and generalization, concept of self, ability to understand the moods and needs of others, and empathy amongst chimpanzees. Moreover, chimpanzees have emotions such as joy and sorrow, fear and despair, and can experience mental as well as physical suffering.


References
Among the Wild Chimpanzees. Jane Goodall. Videocassette. National Geographic Society, 1984.
Goodall, Jane. The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. Boston: Bellknap Press of the Harvard University Press, 1990.
Goodall, Jane. Through a Window. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1990.



Reference:
https://is.muni.cz/th/78389/prif_m/Barvomena_zivocichu__dipl_.pdf

Začínáme

Camouflage, also called cryptic coloration, is a defense or tactic that organisms use to disguise their appearance, usually to blend in with their surroundings. Organisms use camouflage to mask their location, identity, and movement. This allows prey to avoid predators, and for predators to sneak up on prey.


A species’ camouflage depends on several factors. The physical characteristics of the organism are important. Animals with fur rely on different camouflage tactics than those with feathers or scales, for instance. Feathers and scales can be shed and changed fairly regularly and quickly. Fur, on the other hand, can take weeks or even months to grow in. Animals with fur are more often camouflaged by season. The arctic fox, for example, has a white coat in the winter, while its summer coat is brown. 


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Odborný překlad vyžaduje především pečlivost, přesnost a časné ověřování. Několik pravidel nám v začátcích pomůže vyvarovat se nejzávažnějších chyb:

1. Nejprve se podrobně seznámíme s tématem překladu, nastudujeme odbornou literaturu; na internetu vyhledáme aktuální, profesionálně přeložené či původní české materiály podobného typu. Vyhýbáme se neověřeným, amatérským textům.
2. Pokud je to možné, kontaktujeme odborníka a požádáme ho o konzultaci, případně závěrečnou revizi překladu.
3. Vyrobíme si slovníček odborných termínů; jejich českou verzi pečlivě ověřujeme v literatuře i na kvalitních, odborných IT stránkách.
4. Od první verze překladu dbáme jak na obsahovou, tak jazykovou správnost a logiku textu.

Nikdo nedokáže srozumitelně přeložit text, kterému sám nerozumí!

Přeložte níže uvednený text z encyklopedie National Geographic a svou verzi překladu vložte do komentáře k tomuto blogu (termín - 30.9.2015). 

Creating Camouflage

Animal species are able to camouflage themselves through two primary mechanisms: pigments and physical structures.
Some species have natural, microscopic pigments, known as biochromes, which absorb certain wavelengths of light and reflect others. Species with biochromes actually appear to change colors. Many species of octopus have a variety of biochromes that allow them to change the color, pattern, and opacity of their skin.
Other species have microscopic physical structures that act like prisms, reflecting and scattering light to produce a color that is different from their skin. The polar bear, for instance, has black skin. Its translucent fur reflects the sunlight and snow of its habitat, making the bear appear white. 
Camouflage can change with the environment. Many animals, such as the arctic fox, change their camouflage with the seasons. Octopuses camouflage themselves in response to a threat. Other species, such as nudibranchs—brightly colored, soft-bodied ocean “slugs”—can change their skin coloration by changing their diet. 

Chameleons change colors in order to communicate. When a chameleon is threatened, it does not change color to blend in to its surroundings. It changes color to warn other chameleons that there is danger nearby.
Some forms of camouflage are not based on coloration. Some species attach or attract natural materials to their bodies in order to hide from prey and predators. Many varieties of desert spiders, for instance, live in burrows in the sandy ground. They attach sand to the upper part of their bodies in order to blend in with their habitat. 


Other animals demonstrate olfactory camouflage, hiding from prey by “covering up” their smell or masking themselves in another species’ smell. The California ground squirrel, for instance, chews up and spits out rattlesnake skin, then applies the paste to its tail. The ground squirrel smells somewhat like its main predator. The rattlesnake, which senses by smell and body heat, is confused and hesitant about attacking another venomous snake.